Azusa Suganuma

Graduate of a MA of Social Sciences from the University of Hitotsubashi and a MA  Storia e Cultura dell’Alimentazione from the University of Bologna, Azusa Suganuma works for a Japanese firm specialised in food processing. She is in charge of Italian products imports such as pasta, olive oil and tomato tins, and is a renowned olive oil sommelier in AISO.
Since her early years, Azusa became curious about cultures from different countries, especially their cuisine. She realised soon enough that a country’s cuisine is often linked to its History and its culture, which is why she now wishes that Japanese gastronomy be known as part of its authentic History.

Ekiben: the boxed meal for railway trips in Japan

13 MARCH 2016 | AZUSA SUGANUMA

When you take a long-distance train in Japan, you may see a group of friends laughing and talking and, at a certain point, they take out some boxes, put them on their knees and begin to eat from the boxes in the train. Or you can encounter a businessman board the bullet train with a plastic bag, especially in the evening when he might finish his work. A minute after the train leaves the station, he takes a canned beer from the bag, drinks it a little then opens the box and begins to eat from it with chopsticks. These boxed meals taken in trains are called “Ekiben (駅弁)” and they are seen quite often at the stations for long-distance trains. In this article, I would like to present this Ekiben phenomenon in Japan and try to show some varieties of regional characteristics demonstrated in this boxed meal for the railway trips.

Railway development in Japan

When the steam locomotive was introduced in England for the first time in history in 1825¹, Japan was still under the control of Samurai and the Tokugawa shogunate had taken the policy of isolation called Sakoku 鎖国 in the first half of the 17th century. During the Sakoku period it was prohibited to go out from the land and contact with foreigners was limited to commercial trade with China, Taiwan and the Netherlands on the small island of Dejima at Nagasaki. It lasted for about 200 years until 1854. The Tokugawa government has ceased in 1868 and when it was replaced by the reign of Emperor, the new government decided to introduce occidental habits and technology to modernize the country, which was to catch up with Europe and America where Industrial Revolution had already taken place.

The railway was one of these technologies introduced in Japan and the first rail was constructed in 1872 between Shinbashi and Yokohama ². It passed the coast of Tokyo for about 30km and the Meiji Emperor, important Japanese politicians and several occidental ministers took the first train. It was a single-track operation as a passenger train³. The government finances were severed by internal conflicts and private companies constructed railways at the beginning, which mainly remained as regional railways. In 1907, the main railways were nationalized by military policy⁴. Then Japanese National Railways remained as the public corporation until 1987, when it became Japan Railways (JR Group) with 6 companies for passenger purpose. Today JR Group is the prominent railway that covers the whole national territory with 20.135,3 km. There are 198 railway companies including JR Group itself and the total distance of rails recorded in Japan was 35.544,8 km in 2012⁵

On the other hand, Japan is famous for its bullet train called Shinkansen (新幹線). It appeared in 1964 when the Tokyo Summer Olympics were held. It took 3 hours and 10 minutes for a Tokyo – Osaka with 163 km/h in those days but it shortened a lot and now it takes 2 and half hours with 207 km/h⁶. Shinkansen covers the Japanese islands except Hokkaido and Okinawa running 2.620,2 km as seen in the Figure 1. 324.442 thousands people used the Shinkansen in 2012, equal to 888.882 passengers per day⁷.

Today, thanks to the presence of the Shinkansen and the network of local trains, it is easy to access the 47 Japanese prefectures: 1 metropolis (Tokyo), 1 circuit (Hokkaido), 2 urban prefectures (Osaka and Kyoto) and the other 43 prefectures.

Fig1. Map of Shinkansen and major JR railways from Japan Rail Pass⁸

Ekiben, the boxed meal for railway trips

Ekiben is defined in the Japanese-language dictionary Daijirin published by Sanseido as “a boxed meal sold at a railroad [train] station or inside the train. Ekiben is an abbreviation of Ekiuri (駅売り, station-sold) and Bento (弁当, boxed meal).” The first Ekiben has appeared in 1885 at Utsunomiya station situated 110 km north of Tokyo. It was a rather simple one wrapped in bamboo leaf and it contained two rice balls seasoned with salt and sesame, and some Daikon radish pickles⁹. Boxed meals with side dishes had begun to appear since 1889 but the former style remained the most current until 1930s (Fig. 2).

A scene of railway and Ekiben can be reconstructed from the novels and reviews of those days. Let’s look at an example of Sanshiro, the novel written by Soseki Natsume in 1908. Sanshiro is the name of a young student from the southern island called Kyusyu and he takes the train for Tokyo to start his study at University of Tokyo. A scholar of Japanese literature Fujimori analyzes the description of Ekiben in this novel and assumes from the side dish of fish appearing in his boxed meal that Sanshiro might have bought it at the station of Maibara, 110 km north of Osaka¹⁰. This side dish was sweetfish (Plecoglossus altivelis) cooked with soy sauce and sugar and it was the specialty of Lake Biwa, along which Sashiro’s train passed. Fujimori cites the contents of Ekiben at Maibara station from a volume of culinary review Syokudouraku published in 1905 and, according to this review, Maibara station’s Ekiben was consisted of grilled egg, Kamaboko (蒲鉾, cured surimi), sweeten beans, cooked chicken, cooked sweetfish and white rice. It is described as not putrid but it did not taste especially good. The box of those days was made of thin wood and bamboo leaves or cast-iron plant (Aspidistra elatior), used to separate the side dishes to avoid the tastes to be mixed and to be served as antiseptic. Usually there were vendors who came to the train to sell the Ekiben through the windows (Fig. 3). There should have been also a dining car in Sanshiro’s train since it had appeared in 1899 but he never tried it. The above-mentioned culinary review Syokudouraku describes one of the lunch menus of the dining car as follows: soup, three dishes, sweet, fruit, bread and coffee for 1 yen. There was also a à la carte menu including “ham and eggs” (ハム・エンドエツグス) for 25 sen¹¹, “sandwiches” (サンドウイツチ) for 20 sen, bread and butter for 5 sen and coffee or tea for 10 sen. The occidental style as seen in these menus was fashionable and seen as status symbol of the intellectual at that time¹² but it could not be allowed for the young student like Sanshiro who ate Ekiben of 15 sen.

Fig. 2. Ekiben at its early stages¹³                               Fig. 3. Vendor of Ekiben at 1950s¹⁴

Ekiben developed with the expansion of railways and stations and since many stations had their Ekiben with regional specialities, it became a pleasure of the railway trip. It is difficult to know exactly but presumably 3.000 types of Ekiben are sold today ¹⁵. The price is normally between 500 yen and 1,500 yen. The wooden box and bamboo leaves have been replaced gradually with plastic and paper ones. The kiosk and sales onboard became more popular than the vendors because of the structural change of trains: they stop at the station for a very short time and windows are always closed now¹⁶.

Meanwhile, the diffusion of this Ekiben phenomenon should be thought in the culture of boxed meal consumption in Japan. The boxed meal is called Bento (弁当) in Japanese and it also gave its name to the Ekiben (from Ekiuri-Bento as we saw). Its origin is not clear but seems to date back to the late 16th century. It was a portable meal for Samurai to go to war or for the elite to view the flowers in Spring or autumnal tints in autumn at outside banquet¹⁷. From 17th century, it became more popular and it was brought for travelling, theater or work. Today, Bento culture is still common for Japanese people. Students bring the home-made Bento for junior high school or high school and some bring it also for the office. It is always welcomed for picnics or trips. In this context, Ekiben was easily accepted as an extension of Bento boxes. As to the boxed meals for rail trips, we can say that it was accepted by Japanese mentality that found it an efficient use of the time too.

Some examples of Ekiben of today

Makunouchi Bento (幕の内弁当) is the representative boxed meal that is seen almost in every station where Ekiben is sold¹⁸. The word Makunouchi (幕の内) means between the acts at theater. It dates back to the Edo era (1603-1868) when the popular theater like Kabuki became common amongst  people and both the audience and actors had taken this boxed meal between the acts. The first appearance of Makunouchi Bento for Ekiben was in 1889 at Himeji station, 90 km west of Osaka, and we can see its image reproduced by the producer (Fig. 4)¹⁹. Usually Makunouchi Bento contains white rice and different kinds of little sub-dishes like fried egg, Kamaboko (cured surimi), grilled fish (salmon or mackerels) or chicken, fruits, vegetables and sometimes specialities of the place. An example of the speciality in Makunouchi Bento of today is that of Obihiro station, situated in the northern island of Hokkaido. This island is famous for salmon, potato and maize and they are used in its boxed meal. Another example is that of Niigata station, which is at the end of the mainland. Since Niigata is famous for rice cultivating and it faces Sea of Japan, its Ekiben contains the Niigata rice and seafood products.

Fig. 4 First Makunouchi Bento by Maneki-ya²⁰

Ekiben with pottery container (Tokiiri Bento, 陶器入り弁当) is a genre of Ekiben for which pottery container is used. Many production areas of pottery and porcelain exist in Japan and their products have been used for Ekiben containers since the 1950s²¹. The first pottery Ekiben was Touge no Kamameshi (峠の釜飯) sold at Yokokawa station in Gunma prefecture, 130 km north of Tokyo, in 1958²². It is still in production as seen in Figure 5 and the model of the vessel is the pottery kettle to cook the rice. Even though the electric rice cooker replaced it in many Japanese families today, this vessel can be reused to cook the rice at home. Hipparidako (ひっぱりだこ) is another example of the pottery Ekiben sold at Nishi Akashi station in Kobe prefecture, close to Osaka. Akashi is famous for octopus and the pottery vessel is designed as an octopus pot for gathering them (Fig. 6)²³. Pottery Ekiben contained often rice cooked with soy sauce, meat or seafood, and vegetables. Pottery vessel is heavy but it can be a souvenir of the trip and it can be used also as container of stationeries.

Fig. 5 Touge no Kamameshi²⁴                               Fig. 6 Hipparidako²⁵

Western and Chinese (洋食中華) Japanese are open and positive to the introduction of foreign cuisines and many styles are absorbed in Japanese eating habits, for example Western, Chinese, Thai, Indian or Italian. It may owe to the government policy of 19th century when the country opened its border and it began to soak in foreign cultures. These foreign cuisines are also reflected in Ekiben. For example, Shumai Bento (シウマイ弁当) as seen in Figure 7 was born in 1954 at Yokohama where one of three famous Chinatowns in Japan are situated²⁶. Syumai are Chinese pork dumplings but now they are commonly consumed at Japanese family tables too. An example for western style is the steak Ekiben of Kobe station (Fig. 8). Kobe beef is one of the famous Japanese beef but it may be so expensive that the beef used for Ekiben cannot be always Kobe one. Anyway, the Steak Ekiben looks luxury and it is sold in several stations in Japan where beef production is famous in the area.

Fig. 7 Syumai Bento²⁷                                                            Fig. 8 Steak Ekiben²⁸

Enlargement of Ekiben out of railways

The mean of transportation is now diversified and it is not only train but also car and air plane which are commonly used. Around the year 2000, Japanese airline companies began to sell the boxed meals called Soraben (空弁). Sora means air and ben is from Bento. It took the idea from Ekiben and applied it to the air trips. The appearance of Soraben was also due to the cut of meal offer on airplanes. It is usually smaller than railway boxed meal since the table on the air plane is relatively small and sometimes the same Ekiben is sold for air plane trip. On the other hand, it gave a possibility to promote the regional speciality also for Okinawa, the most southern island in Japan where there is no railway in the area. The culture of Okinawa was influenced by Japan, China and Taiwan from its geographical position and it was also under the control of U.S.A. after the Second World War until 1972. Therefore, an original cooking culture has been raised in this southern island and its presence in Soraben should be surely interesting.

Ekiben is so well known and familiar to Japanese that not only do people travel for seeking these boxed meals but also Ekiben from all over Japan reach consumers, for instance, by the occasional events which supermarkets organize. Figure 9 represents the publicity of an Ekiben fair held in a chained supermarket of Aichi prefecture on the 30th and 31st March 2013. It is made as a ranking list and it compares some Ekiben between eastern and western Japan. The champion of eastern Japan is seen at the upper left and it is a mix of some seafood, egg and vegetables from Hokkaido. The one of western Japan is at the upper right and it is a type of Sushi with cherry salmon in bamboo leaves from Toyama. The second place in the middle, the boxes with some crab and rice are indicated for both eastern and western Japan. The third position at the lower left is for eastern Japan and there are an entire cooked squid stuffed with rice and some grilled beef tongue with rice. At the lower right, there are Sushi with different fishes rolled with Kaki leaves and rice cooked with octopus in a pod as mentioned above . Within two days of this publicity, there are presented and sold 30 kinds of Ekiben from 18 prefectures.

Fig. 9. Publicity of the occasional sales of Ekiben at a Japanese supermarket

Conclusion

In the small box of Ekiben, you can encounter several Japanese recipes generally eaten on the territory, specialities of the regions and some new Japanese tastes influenced by foreign cuisines. It is the gem of casket in which you can find a diversity of Japanese cuisine. Trains that connected the territory didn’t summarize the various tastes to the “national” one but it served to promote the variety of “regional” products and cuisines. Since this boxed meal has already gone out of railways to be presented independently for another kind of trip or supermarkets, who denies that you may encounter an Ekiben also in your country in the near future?

Bibliography

∴ Fujimori, K., (2003). Receipe of Soseki (Soseki no Recipi), Tokyo, Koudansya.

∴ Hayashi, J., Kobayashi., S, (2000). Lesson for Ekiben Studies (Ekibengaku Kouza), Tokyo, Syueisya.

∴ Ishige, N., (2001). The history and cultures of Japanese food, London, Kegan Paul Limited.

∴ Kobayashi, S., (2005). The Comlete Book of Japanese Ekiben (Nippon Ekiben Taizen), Tokyo, Bungeisyunjyu.

∴ Koizumi, T., (2002). Wisdom of Japanese toward foods (Syoku to Nihonnjin no Chie), Tokyo, Iwanami Shoten.

∴ Kojima, H., (2010). Railway as Culture (Tetsudou toiu Bunka), Tokyo, Kadokawa Gakugei Syuppan.

∴ Nakanishi, T., (2010). Genesis of Japanese Railway (Nihon no Tetsudo Souseiki), Tokyo, Kawade Syobo Sinsya.

More to see

♦ Chinese New Year

Asian New Year delights : a Chinese legacy

06 MARS 2016 | SOPHIE RAOBEHARILALA

Last February has started with New Year celebrations in Asia as well where the Asian diaspora can be found around the world. Many Chinese parades with costumes and music, parties with great feasts were taking place. We are familiar with the recurrent indicators of Chinese celebrations such as red and gold colours decorating the cities, dragons marching down the streets surrounded with dancers. But if Chinese traditions are widely known for this occasion, curiosity pushes us to have a look at China’s neighbours. The influence of the Chinese culture has been large over the centuries and it is fair to say that similarities can be noticed in festivities amongst East Asian countries :

“ One measure of the range of a civilization is the spread of a common calendar. Europe adopted the Gregorian calendar, and North Africa and West Asia adopted the Islamic calendar, so that the religious holidays fell on the same days throughout the respective cultural spheres. Likewise in East Asia, calendars based on the same fundamental principles were adopted in Japan, China, Korea and northern Vietnam, thus defining a single sphere of civilization”.[1]

We will therefore have a brief look at New Year celebrations in Japan and in Taiwan.

Japan

The celebration of the new year in Japan is called oshôgatsu starting from the 31st of December and lasting until the 3rd of January. Japanese culture is closely related to food. Festivities are always an occasion to prepare and eat a large variety of meals. Different ingredients are used according to different celebrations and occasions. As Michael Ashkenazi states,

“Virtually all of the  main national holidays are marked by special foods. Of them all, the most sumptuous are the special foods of the New Year. Other holidays are also celebrated with colorful and unusual foods, each of which has its own symbolic meaning”.[2]

Like in many religions in Asia, honoring deities starts with offerings, most of them being money and food such as uncooked rice. This tradition applies to shrines in Japan : when an offering is made, a small cup of saké is received in return as good luck for the start of the new year.

Since this part of the year is hosting the most important celebration of all, the feast is prepared days if not weeks in advance. Therefore it is not unusual to find cold dishes on the table. One exception remains : ozōni, a soup prepared specifically for the occasion, which brings strength.

If ingredients are thoroughly selected according to their symbolic and the seasons, their colours also have a key role:

“Foods colored red, white or gold are preferred : succulent taï fish, mounds of red-and-white- rice cakes and golden ginko nuts, sometimes stung on pine needles”.[3]

The Japanese are very well known for being able to create harmony. It is without any surprise that the container is as thought-through than the contents. Indeed the most exquisite and expensive china is used in this occasion together with red lacquer bowls, and baskets. Furthermore, the tradition sees the food packed in a lacquered box with three trays called jûbako decorated with an indication of the season. The first tray is usually filled with seasonal foods such as black beans (symbol of health) boiled in syrup (sweet being the symbol of an easy year, as are sweet potato and sweet chestnuts), kazunoko (symbol of fecundity). The second tray contains seafood and sansai (wild vegetables), marinated octopus, squid. The third tray contains vegetables seasoned with soy sauce and sugar, bringing back the sweetness and again an easy year.

If the feast is in the plate and on the table, it also is in the house with decorations made of rice and other ingredients.

“The New Year is the time to consume special foods (oseichi), to decorate the entrance of houses with cut green bamboo poles wrapped in straw rope and decorated with pine branches and oranges (kado matsu), […]. The green of the pines and bamboo represents the family’s hopes for renewal; the straw rope, (…) circumscribes the end of the year; and the many seeds of the Japanese oranges (daidai) represents growth and fertility as does the daidai, a pun on “many generations”.”[4]

Another decoration is Mochi cake. Made of mochi-gome (glutinous rice), it symbolises purity. Mochi cake shaped in a circle can be found on shrines or inside the home to celebrate a fresh start for a new year.

“These cakes are called kagami mochi and are named after the mirror (kagami), which is one of the sacred treasures of Japan, the other two being the sword and the jewel. The rice cake is the essence of sacred rice itself, its spirit or soul”.[5]

The Japanese usually celebrate New Year’s Eve with family and the first day of the year with friends.

Taïwan

Taïwan follows the Chinese New Year festivities religiously. Like in Japan, preparations have started weeks before the celebration period. This is a yearly opportunity for the Taiwanese to get the family together and enjoy a multi-generation moment.

Taiwanese traditions related to food do not only resume to a great meal and decorations, it has a major role in beliefs and religion. Sugar is used as a link between the people and deities. Indeed celebrations begin on the twenty-fourth day of the twelfth lunar month as it is believed that on this day various gods ascend to heaven to pay their respects and report on the family to the Jade Emperor, the supreme Taoist deity. Tradition is to smear malt sugar on the lips of the Kitchen God to ensure that he either submits a favorable report to the Jade Emperor or keeps silent.

The large choice of dishes during the festivities have been selected wisely according to their symbolic and similarities in sound with words of good luck. For instance, fish (yu) symbolises money, fish balls (yu wan) and meat balls (rou wan) symbolise reunion, garlic chives (jiu cai) for everlasting, turnips (cai tou) represent good omens, shoe-shaped gold dumplings (shui jiao) are bringing money. The sea cucumber also carries an auspicious meaning, for it is pronounced haishen, the shen sounding like sheng or “give birth”. The word chicken is a homonym for jia or family therefore it is common to find a whole chicken on the table as a symbol of starting a family, thus asking for blessing and prosperity in the year just arriving. Lucky refreshments are also prepared at this time, such as glutinous rice flour pudding (niangao), which is said to make people “advance toward higher positions and prosperity step by step”. When it comes to having the meal, ingredients are stir-fried together, “including vermicelli and bean sprouts, coriander leaves, celery, Chinese cabbage, and other assorted vegetables chopped into thin slices. Soy sauce and sesame oil may be added when this dish serves as a cold dish”.[6] For dessert we can notice again the importance of rice in the Asian culture with a selection of bu bu gao deng or “step by step ever higher” desserts. Brown-sugar New Year sticky-rice cakes or red-bean New Year sticky-rice cakes called “year cakes” or niangao symbolise an ever higher year. The Taiwanese also eat fagao, a steamed sponge cake which refers to the expression yilu fa meaning “prosperous all the way.” As for perfect happiness, it can be found in sweet glutinous rice balls and deep fried taro-and-jujube balls!

Conclusion

This short trip around festive Japan and Taiwan allowed us to notice the importance of the role of food in Asian cultures. Food offerings are made to shrines, home altars and families, key ingredients and dishes are linked to deities and beliefs, and finally colour codes are recurrent around the Eastern part of the continent. The importance of rice and food in general stresses the fact that food is used as a mean to convey messages with deities, bringing to it an entire new function than just of nourishing people. As for the influence of Chinese culture, not only has it spread if we take a close look to similarities in traditions and symbolism, but it also carried on with a few twists depending on the country’s food habits.

Bibliography

∴ Ashkenazi, Michael, Food culture in Japan, CT : Greenwood Press, 2003.

∴ Cheung, Sidney, Tan Chee-Beng, Food and foodways in Asia : resource, tradition and cooking, Routledge 2007.

∴ Ishige, Naomichi, The history and culture of Japanese food, London : Kegan Paul 2001.

∴ Mannur, Anita, Culinary fictions : food in South Asian diasporic culture, Temple university press, U.S 2009.

∴ Department of Information Technology, Taipei City Government, The Wonderful Auspicious Food Tastes of the Lunar New Year [http://english.gov.taipei/ct.asp?xItem=1101608&ctNode=49659&mp=100002]

The Inquisitor in the kitchen with a spit !

10 JANUARY 2016 | PAR SOPHIE RAOBEHARILALA

To many of us, Inquisition recalls dark times of the Spanish Inquisition with its atmosphere of terror, torture and denunciation. If the Spanish preferred to follow a rather extreme form of justice, Malta on the other hand opted for a less radical approach, meaning that being summoned at the Inquisitor’s palace was not synonym of sure death.
The accused in this case is the position of Inquisitor. In 1574, the office of the bishop and inquisitor were separated for the first time. However the Inquisitor was a representative of the Curia and was entitled to have his own jurisdiction.

The role of the Inquisitor was to preside the Inquisition Tribunal and judge with the help of his collaborators. Despite being responsible for the custody of the Faith, he was also the official representative of the pope in Malta. In that respect he received his orders from the Supreme Congregation which sent its instructions on his behaviour and way of life.1 The Inquisitor’s palace was therefore expected to follow a strict lifestyle in his actions as well as in his diet. Through this investigation, we will try to identify the crime of greed, the motive.

❖ Food

But first let’s have a look at the means, food supplies on the island during the Renaissance. Malta’s food resources were very limited thanks to the various events the island faced over 200 years, including wars and diseases. Grain was the base of meals, and it is the ingredient which suffered the most in these circumstances. Harvest was poor in quantities and despite it being enough to feed the entire population, it would only be sufficient for half a year.2 Malta therefore had to import grain from Sicily, island with which strong links had been created during the Ottoman Empire’s invasion, links which remained basic for the economic and political survival of Hospitaller Malta. However, Sicily hadn’t been spared by these same events. As sources point out:

“Antonio Pignatelli’s years in Malta after 1646 were marked by serious famine and poverty among the local population caused by a dearth in Sicily which used to provide the islands with all types of food provisions. Inquisitor Pignatelli himself wrote to Rome to plead on behalf of the Maltese but received no positive answer. Acting on his own responsibility as the head of the Reverenda Fabbrica of St Peter which had in custody the pious legacies of the diocese of Malta, he offered its moneys for food provisions until the situation improved when the money had to be returned.”3

In addition to Italian importations, supply of provisions was also due to European merchants’ trade as well as Maltese expatriates:
“Maltese working abroad were doing merchandising between Malta and other countries (France, Spain, Portugal, Italy)”4. The Inquisitor’s Palace supplied as well with the merchants:

“However, we are informed that Gio. Andrea Debono was distillor of acque ardenti at Almeida in Lisbon, […]. There is uch more evidence about wares that these merchants imported into Malta, […]cooks […]. The Reggimento di Malta consisted of recruits from several foreign countries. […] Some were in the service of the inquisitor […]”.5

The Knights of the Order were established in auberges in Birgu and later in Valletta. Their meals were following specific regulations yet because of their social rank, standards were kept:

“Knights from central and northern Europe seldom took well to the Mediterranean lifestyle. Especially as regards dress, food, and drinks, they generally kept to their old habits. This meant that they needed their own cooks and a regular supply of foreign ingredients.”6

The supply of foreign ingredients and products was therefore assured in Malta.

With regards to dairy products, cheese was consumed at both ends of the social scale. The most common cheese in Malta would be goat cheese, as described in de Soldanis’ meal,  :

“Gobon is today translated as cheese but Soldanis serves gobna which is a type of goat cheese ġbejniet, usually eaten mature for a better taste. Soldanis explains he saw this cheese sold in Italy under the name Maltese Cheese (formaggio maltese) which was preserved in a herb called hhascise e rihh (well pellitory), kept in white wine and left to set in a humid place for fifteen to twenty days, making it cheese  for those who have a delicate palate. Kassata accompanied cheese, which is a small pie filled with cheese and eggs or filled with vegetables, meat or fish”.7

Another source mentions this Sicilian cheese as being consumed by all. However, English cheese was also largely available. Parmesan, Swiss and Dutch cheeses were more of a high society delicacy.

If grain was a base of Maltese diet, meat was also part of meals although not consumed regularly. Rabbit and birds, lamb, goat and pork were consumed. As an account from Louis Boisgelin mentions, the Maltese diet was very simple and healthy:

“[…] the Maltese had a special preference for spiced dishes and for pork. Their favourite dishes were fish, lamb, vegetables, fruits and game birds […]”.8

And again,

“[…] Roland de la Platire observed that the Maltese liked to eat rabbit meat and all species of game birds very much. That the Maltese farmers were fanatic hunters of rabbits had been observed by several eighteenth-century travellers.”9

Meat, especially game, was therefore regularly served at upper-class tables as the price would be high.
With regards to fish, this account mentions a regular consumption of fish around the island. However other sources following this conclusion, point out the lack of fish supplies around the Maltese coasts:

“In the later part of the seventeenth century, tuna fishing seemed to have died out […]. The Inquisitor Borromeo noted in his report on Malta sent to Rome in late 1654 that in the middle of the seventeenth century most of the Maltese fishermen and sailors were in a miserable quarter of Birgu. […] Since the Maltese coast did not abound in fish, as Alexandre Bisani had observed in 1788, the Maltese even sailed as far as the island of Galita to fish and obtain corals.”10

❖ Architecture and furnishing

During the Order of Saint John’s presence in Malta, sixty inquisitors have been nominated to survey the propagation of heresy, sorcery and blasphemy. The Inquisitor’s palace hosted these representatives. The building comprised the Inquisitor’s apartments, a prison and the tribunal, as well as guests apartment and a service’s quarter. As the inventories illustrate, the Inquisitor used to host visiting guests from Grand Tours as well as great receptions. Over the period of 1700-1798, the kitchen area transformed from being divided into fifteen rooms to seven main rooms. The initial layout included kitchen, pantry and service quarters, rooms which remained at least until 1798. When comparing inventories from 1759 and 1798, the recurrent utensils for food preparations were copper and terracotta pots and pans, fish poachers, cauldrons, tart pans and spits. Three noteworthy elements also brought forward were ice-cream churns, butcher’s knife, and many cake moulds. We can therefore presume that meals were prepared from scratch at the palace, with meat cut on site. Preparation techniques varied from boiling, frying, roasting, baking, freezing. With regards to food itself, again inventories stress out the consumption of meat roasts and meat stews, large fishes, sauces and soups, cheese, olive oil, various types of  sweet and savoury pastries, milk, chocolate and coffee.

When comparing these inventories elements with the food supplies available in Malta at the time, it is possible to retrace examples of an Inquisitor’s plate.

Taking a close look to the ground floor’s layout, 2 ovens and a fireplace can be located in three different rooms, each interconnected and potentially existing going back to the 18th century. Furthermore, the use of ‘Dutch ovens’ and hobs is mentioned in the inventories. We can therefore presume that the kitchen hosting the fireplace would be the room were roasts were prepared. About 6 to 7 spits of various sizes are mentioned in the inventories. Since the palace was only hosting prisoners on one side, and the Inquisitor and his retinue on another, both groups having to follow a strict diet (voluntarily or not), it is fair to say that this great number of spits was used for diner receptions at the palace. The number of pastry moulds and cutters added to the various ovens, point out the sophistication of served meals. The presence of ice-cream churns, coffee grinder and chocolate pots finish to assign a rather refined and delicate palate to the Inquisitors who seem to have tastes influenced by the radiant Italian and French cuisines.

❖ Verdict

The palace hosted a succession of Inquisitors, each of them with their own vision of strict lifestyle. In light of these discoveries, we can come to the conclusion that in general, inquisitors had a rather European diet with meals based on local and imported ingredients. The standards remained high over the period, with a cuisine including fine delicacies and following the European high cuisine novelties despite being on an island. Was it to maintain a respectful image due to a controversial position in Maltese society11, or was it rather to keep ounces of a past lifestyle, the answer to that question depends on a personal vision of the role and the degree of frivolity each Inquisitor possessed. The richness of the Inquisitor’s table was more in product quality rather than in the quantities, yet it was still seen as a feasting place, which in contrast with the rest of the population’s diet, would appear to be indecent and far from a supposed lean regime. In that respect, Inquisitors were found guilty of greediness and pomp.

Bibliography

∴ Bonnici, Alexander, Medieval and Roman Inquisition in Malta, Reliçgjon u õHajja, 1998.

∴ De Soldanis, an eighteenth century intellectual, Malta: Heritage Malta and the Ministry of Gozo, Vella, G & O.Vella editions, 2012.

∴ Freller, Thomas, Malta: The Order of St John, Midsea Books, 2010.§ The Rule of the hospitallers – Grand Master, Inquisitor and Bishop p.160.

∴ Freller, Thomas, Malta and the Grand Tour, Maltese Social Studies Series n°18, 2009.

∴ Ciappara, Frans, Society and the Inquisition in Early Modern Malta, PEG (Malta), 2001, § Maltese in context.

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Maltese History through a sweet tooth

13 DECEMBER 2015 | PAR SOPHIE RAOBEHARILALA

Malta might not appear very impressive in size when looking at a map of Europe, but the same cannot be said for its History. Over the centuries, a succession of foreign occupation left its trace on the Maltese heritage. Mentioning the country’s name quite often brings the Knights of the Order of Saint John to mind. However Malta’s History began long before 1530. A short overview through Maltese desserts will retrace the different periods of occupation.

Despite having found little analysed sources on the Maltese diet prior the arrival of the Order, we can notice a great influence from North African cultures when it comes to ingredients. Indeed after a long period under the Byzantin Empire, Malta was conquered by the Arabs in AD 870, which also got hold of Sicily at the same time. Thereafter Muslims Arabo-Berbers colonists and Christian slaves arrived on the island.

These cultural influences can be found in the Maltese food of the time, in particular in confectionary and pastries. As G.Cassar-Pullicino explains:

“Alla luce della filologia comparata, le varie influenze cui andarono, soggette le nostre isole si riflettono chiaramente; influenze che si fanno risentire la lontana dimenzione araba, le relazioni commerciali coi paesi dell’Africa del Nord […]”.1

Thus we can find mentioning of candied fruits, fruit paste and the use of dried fruits in the chronicles of the Renaissance. The use of honey and various types of seeds is also characteristic in this period.

It is therefore possible to get nowadays biscuits named Qagħaq Tal-Gunglien, small ring-shaped biscuits made of simple dough and covered with sesame seeds. Cassar-Pullicino stresses the link between food habits and farming which explains the use of crop products as the base of Maltese pastries. In his description of Qagħaq, different recipes are cited, each variety depending on the social affiliations:

“La gente contadina le forma or di pura pasta ora di pasta con gioggiolena coperta, ora di pasta ripiena col miele; le Monache le riempiono ora di miele ora di conserva […]”2

The basic ingredients however remain the same: eggs, honey (later on sugar), flour. De Soldanis3 also recalls a version of Qagħaq filled this time with honey or a fruit paste. The latter being similar to today’s Christmas Qagħaq, Qagħaq Tal-Għasel which is filled with a paste of combined golden syrup, citrus fruits, dried fruits, sugar, spices, dark chocolate etc.

Another influence from Malta’s Arab past and very much part of today’s life is coffee. Like in many other countries, coffee closes a meal. If this beverage rose in Europe in the mid 17th century, it had been in the Maltese habits for decades. In fact, the introduction of coffee on the island happened through slavery. Muslim Turkish slaves made prisoners by the Order of Saint John were held in prisons where they prepared their traditional beverage. As Domenico Magri mentions in his work Virtu del Kafé,

“Those Turks, most skilful makers of this concoction”4

were very much sought after by the Knights themselves who became rapidly fond of the drink. Another statement from the German traveller Gustav Sommerfeldt in 1663 stresses the aroused enthusiasm,

“the ability and industriousness with which the Turkish prisoners earn some money, especially by preparing coffee, a powder resembling snuff tobacco, with water and sugar”.5

The Knights’ fondness for coffee lead to its introduction in Maltese high society. Its success was such that soon enough coffee shops opened and the beverage became popular amongst the entire country. The recipe for Maltese coffee was initially made with grounded coffee beans added to boiling water with cloves and was left to brew as long as it takes to recite a Creed. In the 18th century, coffee was seen as dessert, often served with a small piece of cake, as mentioned in de Soldanis’ dinner recollection:

“For dessert coffee would have been served with a piece of kaghka (pastry with sesame seeds or flavoured with honey; stuffed with honey or preserved fruits).”6

The Arab influence is therefore very much part of the Maltese culture, which if obvious in its language, is just as much in its gastronomy.

However it is not the single influence on Maltese cuisine. Italy also played its part. As mentioned previously, Italy and Malta had strong connexions during the Arab occupation of the island and of Sicily, so much so that this part of Europe was once named the Two Sicilies. Commercial and cultural exchanges followed. Furthermore did the Order of the Knights contribute greatly to this Italian print. The Knights originating from European nobility, their lifestyle had to be maintained at certain standards. But if Malta was rich in terms of food variety, its quantities weren’t sufficient enough to nourish the entire population; besides ingredients for every European diet couldn’t be found on the island. Malta was therefore supplied in majority by Sicily as well as by merchants’ ships from other European countries.

This is how nougat made an entrance in Malta. The honey island found there a sweet fitting perfectly for its food heritage. During the 18th century, Qubbjat (Cubbaitu in Sicilian) was made of honey, caramel and grated lemon peels. This treat was part of the Knight’s menus at the auberges in the 17th century. Quoting for instance the German Knights’ menu in 1691 for Saint Martin’s day:

“On St Martin’s day, the elders received, in addition to their usual meal, one and a half rotolos [1 rotolo = ∾ 800g] of candied fruit; three quarters of a rotolo of sweet biscuits, two rotolos of cubbaita (…). The young Knights (fiernaldi) only celebrated Saint Martin’s feast with the addition of one rotolo of nougat (…). The cook and the Master of the Table also partook of the nougat (…)”.7

Nowadays this treat is still offered in tea-rooms and pastry shops with slight changes in the ingredients with the likes of almonds, nuts, sesame seeds, sugar and cinnamon powder.

If Italy is renowned in the sweet department it can be for its ice-cream. And this dessert has indeed crossed the sea towards Malta. One of the most important food for every resident on the island judging by the local temperatures and weather. The Mediterranean heats were the main cause for the expanding ice and snow trades between both countries. Regular deliveries in provenance of Mount Etna contributed to the success of frozen desserts in high society. Rapidly a snow depot was built on the Marina. In 1664, ice was used to make ice-cream, sorbet and chill drinks. Ice-creams were often made in the shape of fruits, flavoured with fruits or chocolate, cinnamon, coffee, pistachio and other flavours. Michele Mercieca8 wrote in 1748 a recipe book in which techniques of how to shape and paint ices to look just like fruits were detailed.

Finally the British influence followed in a later period from 1800. Christmas celebrations in Malta became more and more British at the beginning of the 20th century. Thus family meals had Christmas puddings, mince pies and fairy cakes on their festive menus. Today this tradition remains and puddings are prepared weeks in advance at both ends of the European continent.

The absence of French influence on pastries is noticeable. Even if the Renaissance was the golden period for French cuisine and gastronomy, unpleasant memories of Napoleon times in Malta after the French revolution marked the rejection of French taste by the Maltese. Only a few savoury recipes subsisted.

Despite all these foreign influences, Malta also had its own touch on its food heritage. Although being an island, Malta had similarities with its neighbour countries, one of them being food crisis. Over centuries grain shortage, epidemic and war have brought up a cuisine of conserve as well as a cuisine of necessity. We can find amongst recipes the Maltese bread pudding (Pudina Tal-Ħobz), a bread-cake also very popular in the rest of Europe. If today’s Maltese recipe is a mix of fruits and cinnamon powder added to bread, milk and eggs, in the past it used to be old bread mixed to available leftovers, whether it be sweet like savoury. The result being a rich cake, filling and having a surprise factor at each bite, this dessert brought a festive twist to the table.

Through this sweet journey, we discover different aspects of Maltese heritage and of its people. The island’s cuisine managed to appropriate itself tastes and flavours from the successive foreign occupations, according to their preferences. If the love of good food of Maltese is evident, a sweet-tooth is also noticeable. Maltese pastries are a real source of information on the country’s History since not only does it retrace the various periods of occupation but it brings them back to life taste-wise since very little has changed in the ingredients of recipes. A balade gourmande for tea-time might be as instructive as a History class…

Bibliography

∴ Bonello, Giovanni, Histories of Malta – Deceptions and Perceptions, Vol.1, 2000.

∴ De Soldanis, an eighteenth century intellectual, Malta: Heritage Malta and the Ministry of Gozo, Vella, G & O.Vella editions, 2012.

∴ G.Cassar-Pullicino, Antichi Cibi Maltesi in Melita Historica : journal of the Malta Historical Society, 3(1961)2(31-54).

∴ Freller, Thomas, Malta and the Grand Tour, Maltese Social Studies Series n°18, 2009.

∴ Cremona, Matty, The way we ate – memories of maltese meals, Midsea Books, 2010.