Wymondham railway station

12 JUIN 2016 | PAR SOPHIE RAOBEHARILALA

Pour ce dernier article avant l’été, continuons dans notre tour du monde gastronomique et historique en train. Cette semaine nous vous invitons au Royaume-Uni sur les traces d’une ancienne gare restaurée, Wymondham railway station.

Durant la Révolution Industrielle, le Royaume-Uni a développé son circuit ferroviaire considérablement, permettant aux centres économiques majeurs d’être connectés entre eux, tout en sortant de l’isolement villages et villes à population moyenne. Cette expansion sur le territoire permit la circulation des personnes, des marchandises, ce qui contribua à relancer le tourisme et le commerce, tout en créant de l’emploi. Les années prospères virent une accélération du niveau de vie à tous les niveaux sociaux et le voyage faisait désormais partie du quotidien.

Par conséquent les gares ferroviaires se devaient de proposer à leurs voyageurs des services tels qu’un lieu d’attente, l’hébergement avec la construction d’hôtels attenant à la gare dans le cas des grandes villes, par exemple Edimbourg et le North British Hotel (désormais Balmoral Hotel)1 construit en 1902, des divertissements avec des kiosques à journaux et le restaurant/tea-room, parfois simple buffet ou vente à emporter.

Restaurant du North British Hotel, 1930, Edimbourg. Réf.1995-7233_LIVST_HO_83, collection Liverpool Street photos; National Railway Museum, York.

Ces lieux de sustentation étaient fréquents dans les grandes gares. Ainsi Waverley station à Edimbourg proposait au menu de son buffet un service rapide à emporter comprenant des repas légers et sandwichs, soupes et gâteaux accompagnés d’une boisson; on pouvait également avoir un repas complet avec un service à la table dans le restaurant de la gare, et un service de haute gamme dans le restaurant de l’hôtel destiné à une clientèle aisée.

À échelle inférieure, les gares de villages offraient, lorsqu’elles le pouvaient, un salon de thé attenant à la salle d’attente, voire un restaurant, bien loin des fastes de grandes villes. La gare de Wymondham2 dans le Norfolk illustre parfaitement les effets des développements technologiques et industriels sur la population britannique. À l’instar de ses villes voisines, Wymondham a connu son heure de gloire à l’arrivée du chemin de fer. La gare employait près de cinquante personnes officiant dans divers départements tels que guichetier, agent de signalement, serveur, conducteur de train. De part sa localisation sur le circuit ferroviaire, la ville était devenue un incontournable pour les entreprises qui voyaient là un centre d’exportation de leurs produits à échelle nationale, et donc une raison de s’y implanter. Wymondham participa également à aider durant la Seconde Guerre Mondiale de part sa localisation.

Comptoir du buffet de Waverley, 1947, Edimbourg. Réf.1995-7233_LIVST_HR_105, collection Liverpool Street photos; National Railway Museum, York.

Cependant dès 1945 le développement et la démocratisation de l’automobile annoncèrent la fin de la prospérité du chemin de fer et ses gares, fléau qui toucha le pays durant vingt longues années. En 1969, seules les cargaisons de fret voyageaient sur la ligne Wymondham-Forncett, puis elle fut définitivement fermée en 1989. La ligne reliant la Wymondham à Londres est restée active. Les conséquences pour la gare de Wymondham furent telles qu’en 1967, tous les employés hormis l’agent de signalement, furent licenciés, la gare n’étant plus qu’une gare d’arrêt. La gare fut laissée à l’abandon, n’ayant plus de personnel.

À la fin des années 1980, David Turner, entrepreneur local, décida de racheter le bâtiment à la compagnie British Rail afin de le restaurer. En 1989, la gare ouvrit à nouveau, composée d’un salon de thé et restaurant, d’un magasin de pianos, le tout décoré avec des objets de gare de 1845 collectionnés par le propriétaire.

Restaurant Brief Encounter, Wymondham, [en ligne] http://www.theguardian.com/travel/2009/may/12/railway-station-cafes-uk-food, consulté le 11 Août 2013.

L’endroit propose aux voyageurs et autres personnes de passage dans son établissement un restaurant-buffet composé de café et petit-déjeuner pour le voyageur matinal, de déjeuner cuisiné sur place à base de produits locaux, et d’un thé gourmand l’après-midi.
Turner choisit le thème du film Brève Rencontre de Noël Coward (1945), ironique pour une gare dite “de passage” mais souhaitant certainement voir les rencontres entre passagers durer plus longuement.

Un pari réussi puisque depuis son ouverture, Brief Encounter (devenu Station Bistro) fût récompensé au niveau national pour sa table et son espace commercial. La gare fût également nominée pour le prix de meilleur buffet de gare. Au-delà de prix nationaux, Wymondham station retrouva ses lettres de noblesse grâce aux nombreuses visites de personnalités britanniques et internationales, suscitant un intérêt général pour la ville et son “attraction”.

Faites-y un saut cet été, replongez-vous dans l’Histoire le temps d’un passage gourmand.

Bibliographie

∴Biddle, Gordon, The railway heritage of Britain: 150 years of railway architecture and engineering, Studio editions, 1990.

∴Wills, Dixie, Ten of the best railway cafes, the Guardian, 12 Mai 2009, [en ligne] http://www.theguardian.com/travel/2009/may/12/railway-station-cafes-uk-food, consulté le 11 Août 2013.

∴Wymondham Station History, extrait du documentaire the Story of Wymondham Historic Railway Station, Wymondham Heritage Society, 1992.

∴Wymondham’s Brief Encounter Restaurant, Tales from the Country, ITV, diffusé le 12 Avril 2008.

∴Correspondance avec David Turner, Août 2013.

« Food on the Move » (03/05) Un mal à bannir? La street food sous tension

22 MAI 2016 | PAR GAELLE VAN INGELGEM

La street food a toujours existé. L’époque où les foyers n’étaient pas munis d’une cuisine n’est pas si lointaine. Se procurer un repas déjà cuisiné en route vers son lieu de travail était alors une nécessité. Les vendeurs ambulants proposant de la nourriture sillonnaient déjà les rues de l’Empire romain ; avant la conquête espagnole, ils parcouraient les voies de circulation des cités anciennes sous l’empire aztèque. La ville de Mexico, alors connue sous le nom de Tenochtitlan, proposait une alimentation de rue diversifiée et prolifique, tradition culturelle qui perdura durant toute la période coloniale et jusqu’à nos jours.[1]

Désormais, rares sont les villes qui ne vantent pas la qualité et la diversité de leur street food, que ce soit au travers de festivals lui étant spécialement dédiés ou comme faire-valoir de toute manifestation urbaine. Prise d’assaut par ce qu’il est commun d’appeler la « culture foodie », ou la tendance des jeunes citadins à accorder une attention particulière à tout ce qui touche au culinaire, la nourriture de rue a quitté les rangs de la seule alimentation populaire, bon marché et ouvrière pour se voir conférer d’inédites lettres de noblesse. Il suffit d’ailleurs de s’aventurer dans la file menant à certains « food-trucks », ces petits camions au design léché proposant des mets travaillés à base de produits de qualité, pour se faire une idée de l’ampleur du phénomène.

Loin d’être restée cantonnée à la rue, la street food a également envahi les structures de restauration classique et même les établissements haut de gamme. Cette omniprésence, preuve de son succès, n’est pas sans équivoque. Nombreuses sont les voix qui s’élèvent contre une street food jugée « ennuyante », « lassante », voire « snob », des qualificatifs visant à discréditer une pratique de bobos chics, de hipsters ou de cols blancs.

Le caractère très contrasté de la réception du phénomène témoigne de sa complexité. Mobile et flexible, la nourriture vendue en rue révèle les évolutions urbanistiques d’une ville, donne une signification sociale, culturelle et symbolique aux espaces urbains. Elle virevolte au gré des tendances culinaires, rythme le paysage et réveille les sens. Son odeur embaume la ville, au point d’en devenir sa première caractéristique pour les visiteurs de passage. Avant d’être branchée, la street food est familière, locale et collective. Dès lors, rien d’étonnant à ce qu’elle ait été, dans de nombreux cas, élevée au rang d’emblème identitaire national. Pensons à la pizza italienne ou aux frites belges.

Cette ambiguïté des réactions n’est pas neuve. La modernité, l’industrialisation et l’hygiénisme du XIXe siècle n’ont pas eu raison d’une pratique que les autorités urbaines se sont toujours efforcées de règlementer, mais jamais d’enrayer. Car l’enjeu a toujours été de concilier les besoins d’une classe populaire pour qui la vente alimentaire ambulante constituait un moyen de subsistance, avec les réclamations des petits commerçants et boutiquiers indépendants, qui voyaient ce canal de diffusion comme un moyen illégal de concurrencer leur commerce patenté.

À côté de cette hostilité affichée que les policiers de quartier et les autorités municipales ont toujours tenue en grande estime – particulièrement en période électorale, et d’autant plus marquée en cas de récession et difficultés économiques – s’ajoutait la préoccupation majeure de la libre circulation sur la voie publique. C’est d’ailleurs encore le cas aujourd’hui dans la plupart des villes. Pour qu’un vendeur ambulant ait la permission d’établir son chariot, d’étaler sa marchandise sur table ou de stationner avec son seul sac à provisions, il doit fournir la preuve irréfutable que sa présence ne gêne d’aucune manière la circulation des véhicules ou des personnes. Sa liberté de mouvement est donc strictement limitée.[2]

En même temps, le caractère authentique de la vente ambulante, avec ses odeurs, les cris de ses vendeurs, alimente la vie urbaine d’une connotation spécifique. Alors qu’à partir du milieu XIXe siècle, la plupart des grandes villes européennes se parent de larges boulevards et sont progressivement soumises à la volonté d’aérer les rues, de les assainir en les dépouillant de leurs indésirables, les auteurs contemporains soulignent allègrement la typicité de la vente ambulante qui colore le paysage de la ville en lui apportant cette petite étincelle de folie, de joie, de vivacité.[3]

Detroit Publishing, Library of Congress, Circa 1900 [4]

D’abord populaire, laborieuse, simple et relativement bon marché, la street food s’est ensuite embourgeoisée en se parant des codes et préoccupations d’une classe moyenne en mal de visibilité. Souvent comparée au phénomène de la gentrification ou l’appropriation des quartiers pauvres par une population aisée attirée par la prétendue authenticité de ces espaces, l’obsession pour la street food résonne en effet comme une tentative de réconciliation entre les classes sociales par la valorisation d’une culture populaire. Et même si l’effet pervers de cette appropriation est moins nuisible dans le cas du « tout street food » que du « tout gentrifié », il n’en demeure pas moins que dans de nombreuses villes, les petits vendeurs ambulants dont l’offre de restauration n’a pas pris pour modèle les nouvelles idées du goût, mais est restée ancrée dans une certaine tradition culturelle, sont sur le point de disparaître. Soit parce qu’ils dénotent physiquement, corporellement ou olfactivement avec l’image que la ville veut donner d’elle-même. Soit parce qu’ils ne répondent pas aux attentes des clients au capital culturel et financier élevé, plus enclins à se sentir valorisés socialement par la fréquentation des food-trucks.[5]

Ainsi, se pencher sur le phénomène street food, c’est d’une certaine manière se frotter aux tensions qui caractérisent la modernité. En articulant authenticité et nouveauté, tradition et innovation, distinction et démocratie, cette pratique culturelle universelle agit, tout en contraste, comme un précieux révélateur du fonctionnement de nos sociétés modernes.

Azusa Suganuma

Graduate of a MA of Social Sciences from the University of Hitotsubashi and a MA  Storia e Cultura dell’Alimentazione from the University of Bologna, Azusa Suganuma works for a Japanese firm specialised in food processing. She is in charge of Italian products imports such as pasta, olive oil and tomato tins, and is a renowned olive oil sommelier in AISO.
Since her early years, Azusa became curious about cultures from different countries, especially their cuisine. She realised soon enough that a country’s cuisine is often linked to its History and its culture, which is why she now wishes that Japanese gastronomy be known as part of its authentic History.

Ekiben: the boxed meal for railway trips in Japan

13 MARCH 2016 | AZUSA SUGANUMA

When you take a long-distance train in Japan, you may see a group of friends laughing and talking and, at a certain point, they take out some boxes, put them on their knees and begin to eat from the boxes in the train. Or you can encounter a businessman board the bullet train with a plastic bag, especially in the evening when he might finish his work. A minute after the train leaves the station, he takes a canned beer from the bag, drinks it a little then opens the box and begins to eat from it with chopsticks. These boxed meals taken in trains are called “Ekiben (駅弁)” and they are seen quite often at the stations for long-distance trains. In this article, I would like to present this Ekiben phenomenon in Japan and try to show some varieties of regional characteristics demonstrated in this boxed meal for the railway trips.

Railway development in Japan

When the steam locomotive was introduced in England for the first time in history in 1825¹, Japan was still under the control of Samurai and the Tokugawa shogunate had taken the policy of isolation called Sakoku 鎖国 in the first half of the 17th century. During the Sakoku period it was prohibited to go out from the land and contact with foreigners was limited to commercial trade with China, Taiwan and the Netherlands on the small island of Dejima at Nagasaki. It lasted for about 200 years until 1854. The Tokugawa government has ceased in 1868 and when it was replaced by the reign of Emperor, the new government decided to introduce occidental habits and technology to modernize the country, which was to catch up with Europe and America where Industrial Revolution had already taken place.

The railway was one of these technologies introduced in Japan and the first rail was constructed in 1872 between Shinbashi and Yokohama ². It passed the coast of Tokyo for about 30km and the Meiji Emperor, important Japanese politicians and several occidental ministers took the first train. It was a single-track operation as a passenger train³. The government finances were severed by internal conflicts and private companies constructed railways at the beginning, which mainly remained as regional railways. In 1907, the main railways were nationalized by military policy⁴. Then Japanese National Railways remained as the public corporation until 1987, when it became Japan Railways (JR Group) with 6 companies for passenger purpose. Today JR Group is the prominent railway that covers the whole national territory with 20.135,3 km. There are 198 railway companies including JR Group itself and the total distance of rails recorded in Japan was 35.544,8 km in 2012⁵

On the other hand, Japan is famous for its bullet train called Shinkansen (新幹線). It appeared in 1964 when the Tokyo Summer Olympics were held. It took 3 hours and 10 minutes for a Tokyo – Osaka with 163 km/h in those days but it shortened a lot and now it takes 2 and half hours with 207 km/h⁶. Shinkansen covers the Japanese islands except Hokkaido and Okinawa running 2.620,2 km as seen in the Figure 1. 324.442 thousands people used the Shinkansen in 2012, equal to 888.882 passengers per day⁷.

Today, thanks to the presence of the Shinkansen and the network of local trains, it is easy to access the 47 Japanese prefectures: 1 metropolis (Tokyo), 1 circuit (Hokkaido), 2 urban prefectures (Osaka and Kyoto) and the other 43 prefectures.

Fig1. Map of Shinkansen and major JR railways from Japan Rail Pass⁸

Ekiben, the boxed meal for railway trips

Ekiben is defined in the Japanese-language dictionary Daijirin published by Sanseido as “a boxed meal sold at a railroad [train] station or inside the train. Ekiben is an abbreviation of Ekiuri (駅売り, station-sold) and Bento (弁当, boxed meal).” The first Ekiben has appeared in 1885 at Utsunomiya station situated 110 km north of Tokyo. It was a rather simple one wrapped in bamboo leaf and it contained two rice balls seasoned with salt and sesame, and some Daikon radish pickles⁹. Boxed meals with side dishes had begun to appear since 1889 but the former style remained the most current until 1930s (Fig. 2).

A scene of railway and Ekiben can be reconstructed from the novels and reviews of those days. Let’s look at an example of Sanshiro, the novel written by Soseki Natsume in 1908. Sanshiro is the name of a young student from the southern island called Kyusyu and he takes the train for Tokyo to start his study at University of Tokyo. A scholar of Japanese literature Fujimori analyzes the description of Ekiben in this novel and assumes from the side dish of fish appearing in his boxed meal that Sanshiro might have bought it at the station of Maibara, 110 km north of Osaka¹⁰. This side dish was sweetfish (Plecoglossus altivelis) cooked with soy sauce and sugar and it was the specialty of Lake Biwa, along which Sashiro’s train passed. Fujimori cites the contents of Ekiben at Maibara station from a volume of culinary review Syokudouraku published in 1905 and, according to this review, Maibara station’s Ekiben was consisted of grilled egg, Kamaboko (蒲鉾, cured surimi), sweeten beans, cooked chicken, cooked sweetfish and white rice. It is described as not putrid but it did not taste especially good. The box of those days was made of thin wood and bamboo leaves or cast-iron plant (Aspidistra elatior), used to separate the side dishes to avoid the tastes to be mixed and to be served as antiseptic. Usually there were vendors who came to the train to sell the Ekiben through the windows (Fig. 3). There should have been also a dining car in Sanshiro’s train since it had appeared in 1899 but he never tried it. The above-mentioned culinary review Syokudouraku describes one of the lunch menus of the dining car as follows: soup, three dishes, sweet, fruit, bread and coffee for 1 yen. There was also a à la carte menu including “ham and eggs” (ハム・エンドエツグス) for 25 sen¹¹, “sandwiches” (サンドウイツチ) for 20 sen, bread and butter for 5 sen and coffee or tea for 10 sen. The occidental style as seen in these menus was fashionable and seen as status symbol of the intellectual at that time¹² but it could not be allowed for the young student like Sanshiro who ate Ekiben of 15 sen.

Fig. 2. Ekiben at its early stages¹³                               Fig. 3. Vendor of Ekiben at 1950s¹⁴

Ekiben developed with the expansion of railways and stations and since many stations had their Ekiben with regional specialities, it became a pleasure of the railway trip. It is difficult to know exactly but presumably 3.000 types of Ekiben are sold today ¹⁵. The price is normally between 500 yen and 1,500 yen. The wooden box and bamboo leaves have been replaced gradually with plastic and paper ones. The kiosk and sales onboard became more popular than the vendors because of the structural change of trains: they stop at the station for a very short time and windows are always closed now¹⁶.

Meanwhile, the diffusion of this Ekiben phenomenon should be thought in the culture of boxed meal consumption in Japan. The boxed meal is called Bento (弁当) in Japanese and it also gave its name to the Ekiben (from Ekiuri-Bento as we saw). Its origin is not clear but seems to date back to the late 16th century. It was a portable meal for Samurai to go to war or for the elite to view the flowers in Spring or autumnal tints in autumn at outside banquet¹⁷. From 17th century, it became more popular and it was brought for travelling, theater or work. Today, Bento culture is still common for Japanese people. Students bring the home-made Bento for junior high school or high school and some bring it also for the office. It is always welcomed for picnics or trips. In this context, Ekiben was easily accepted as an extension of Bento boxes. As to the boxed meals for rail trips, we can say that it was accepted by Japanese mentality that found it an efficient use of the time too.

Some examples of Ekiben of today

Makunouchi Bento (幕の内弁当) is the representative boxed meal that is seen almost in every station where Ekiben is sold¹⁸. The word Makunouchi (幕の内) means between the acts at theater. It dates back to the Edo era (1603-1868) when the popular theater like Kabuki became common amongst  people and both the audience and actors had taken this boxed meal between the acts. The first appearance of Makunouchi Bento for Ekiben was in 1889 at Himeji station, 90 km west of Osaka, and we can see its image reproduced by the producer (Fig. 4)¹⁹. Usually Makunouchi Bento contains white rice and different kinds of little sub-dishes like fried egg, Kamaboko (cured surimi), grilled fish (salmon or mackerels) or chicken, fruits, vegetables and sometimes specialities of the place. An example of the speciality in Makunouchi Bento of today is that of Obihiro station, situated in the northern island of Hokkaido. This island is famous for salmon, potato and maize and they are used in its boxed meal. Another example is that of Niigata station, which is at the end of the mainland. Since Niigata is famous for rice cultivating and it faces Sea of Japan, its Ekiben contains the Niigata rice and seafood products.

Fig. 4 First Makunouchi Bento by Maneki-ya²⁰

Ekiben with pottery container (Tokiiri Bento, 陶器入り弁当) is a genre of Ekiben for which pottery container is used. Many production areas of pottery and porcelain exist in Japan and their products have been used for Ekiben containers since the 1950s²¹. The first pottery Ekiben was Touge no Kamameshi (峠の釜飯) sold at Yokokawa station in Gunma prefecture, 130 km north of Tokyo, in 1958²². It is still in production as seen in Figure 5 and the model of the vessel is the pottery kettle to cook the rice. Even though the electric rice cooker replaced it in many Japanese families today, this vessel can be reused to cook the rice at home. Hipparidako (ひっぱりだこ) is another example of the pottery Ekiben sold at Nishi Akashi station in Kobe prefecture, close to Osaka. Akashi is famous for octopus and the pottery vessel is designed as an octopus pot for gathering them (Fig. 6)²³. Pottery Ekiben contained often rice cooked with soy sauce, meat or seafood, and vegetables. Pottery vessel is heavy but it can be a souvenir of the trip and it can be used also as container of stationeries.

Fig. 5 Touge no Kamameshi²⁴                               Fig. 6 Hipparidako²⁵

Western and Chinese (洋食中華) Japanese are open and positive to the introduction of foreign cuisines and many styles are absorbed in Japanese eating habits, for example Western, Chinese, Thai, Indian or Italian. It may owe to the government policy of 19th century when the country opened its border and it began to soak in foreign cultures. These foreign cuisines are also reflected in Ekiben. For example, Shumai Bento (シウマイ弁当) as seen in Figure 7 was born in 1954 at Yokohama where one of three famous Chinatowns in Japan are situated²⁶. Syumai are Chinese pork dumplings but now they are commonly consumed at Japanese family tables too. An example for western style is the steak Ekiben of Kobe station (Fig. 8). Kobe beef is one of the famous Japanese beef but it may be so expensive that the beef used for Ekiben cannot be always Kobe one. Anyway, the Steak Ekiben looks luxury and it is sold in several stations in Japan where beef production is famous in the area.

Fig. 7 Syumai Bento²⁷                                                            Fig. 8 Steak Ekiben²⁸

Enlargement of Ekiben out of railways

The mean of transportation is now diversified and it is not only train but also car and air plane which are commonly used. Around the year 2000, Japanese airline companies began to sell the boxed meals called Soraben (空弁). Sora means air and ben is from Bento. It took the idea from Ekiben and applied it to the air trips. The appearance of Soraben was also due to the cut of meal offer on airplanes. It is usually smaller than railway boxed meal since the table on the air plane is relatively small and sometimes the same Ekiben is sold for air plane trip. On the other hand, it gave a possibility to promote the regional speciality also for Okinawa, the most southern island in Japan where there is no railway in the area. The culture of Okinawa was influenced by Japan, China and Taiwan from its geographical position and it was also under the control of U.S.A. after the Second World War until 1972. Therefore, an original cooking culture has been raised in this southern island and its presence in Soraben should be surely interesting.

Ekiben is so well known and familiar to Japanese that not only do people travel for seeking these boxed meals but also Ekiben from all over Japan reach consumers, for instance, by the occasional events which supermarkets organize. Figure 9 represents the publicity of an Ekiben fair held in a chained supermarket of Aichi prefecture on the 30th and 31st March 2013. It is made as a ranking list and it compares some Ekiben between eastern and western Japan. The champion of eastern Japan is seen at the upper left and it is a mix of some seafood, egg and vegetables from Hokkaido. The one of western Japan is at the upper right and it is a type of Sushi with cherry salmon in bamboo leaves from Toyama. The second place in the middle, the boxes with some crab and rice are indicated for both eastern and western Japan. The third position at the lower left is for eastern Japan and there are an entire cooked squid stuffed with rice and some grilled beef tongue with rice. At the lower right, there are Sushi with different fishes rolled with Kaki leaves and rice cooked with octopus in a pod as mentioned above . Within two days of this publicity, there are presented and sold 30 kinds of Ekiben from 18 prefectures.

Fig. 9. Publicity of the occasional sales of Ekiben at a Japanese supermarket

Conclusion

In the small box of Ekiben, you can encounter several Japanese recipes generally eaten on the territory, specialities of the regions and some new Japanese tastes influenced by foreign cuisines. It is the gem of casket in which you can find a diversity of Japanese cuisine. Trains that connected the territory didn’t summarize the various tastes to the “national” one but it served to promote the variety of “regional” products and cuisines. Since this boxed meal has already gone out of railways to be presented independently for another kind of trip or supermarkets, who denies that you may encounter an Ekiben also in your country in the near future?

Bibliography

∴ Fujimori, K., (2003). Receipe of Soseki (Soseki no Recipi), Tokyo, Koudansya.

∴ Hayashi, J., Kobayashi., S, (2000). Lesson for Ekiben Studies (Ekibengaku Kouza), Tokyo, Syueisya.

∴ Ishige, N., (2001). The history and cultures of Japanese food, London, Kegan Paul Limited.

∴ Kobayashi, S., (2005). The Comlete Book of Japanese Ekiben (Nippon Ekiben Taizen), Tokyo, Bungeisyunjyu.

∴ Koizumi, T., (2002). Wisdom of Japanese toward foods (Syoku to Nihonnjin no Chie), Tokyo, Iwanami Shoten.

∴ Kojima, H., (2010). Railway as Culture (Tetsudou toiu Bunka), Tokyo, Kadokawa Gakugei Syuppan.

∴ Nakanishi, T., (2010). Genesis of Japanese Railway (Nihon no Tetsudo Souseiki), Tokyo, Kawade Syobo Sinsya.

« Food on the Move » (ép. 01/05) La symbolique du manger en route

24 JANVIER 2015 | PAR GAELLE VAN INGELGEM